Proto-Trans–New Guinea
Proto-Trans–New Guinea is the reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Trans–New Guinea languages. Reconstructions have been proposed by Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley.
Phonology
Proto-Trans–New Guinea is reconstructed with a typical simple Papuan inventory: five vowels,, three phonations of stops at three places, , plus a palatal affricate, the fricative, and the approximants. Syllables are typically V, with CVC possible at the ends of words. Many of the languages have restricted tone systems.In the most recent version, Pawley gives the following consonant inventory for Proto-Trans–New Guinea.
The Proto-Trans–New Guinea vowels are reconstructed as having a cross-linguistically frequent five-vowel system:
Pronouns
Ross reconstructs the following pronominal paradigm for Trans–New Guinea, with *a~*i ablaut for singular~non-singular:There is a related but less commonly attested form for 'we', *nu, as well as a *ja for 'you', which Ross speculates may have been a polite form. In addition, there were dual suffixes *-li and *-t, and a plural suffix *-nV, as well as collective number suffixes *-pi- and *-m- that functioned as inclusive we when used in the first person.
Morphology
Pawley and Hammarström, following Suter, group Madang, Finisterre-Huon, and Kainantu-Goroka together as part of a larger Northeast New Guinea group on the basis of morphological evidence, such as mutually reconstructable verbal suffixes that mark subject:;Proto-Northeast New Guinea subject-marking verbal suffixes
;Comparison of reconstructions of subject-marking verbal suffixes
Lexicon
Lexical words, such as *niman 'louse', may also be reconstructed:The Proto-Trans–New Guinea negative is reconstructed as *ma-. Negatives in Trans–New Guinea languages usually have either an mV- or nV- form.
- mV : Angaatɨha ; Apalɨ, Waskia, Kalam ; Kâte, Kombe
- na ~ naa: Awara ; Enga, Ku Waru, Middle Wahgi ; Oksapmin
Reconstructions
| body parts | - |
| arm, forearm | *mbena |
| belly, internal organs | *mundun |
| blood | *kea |
| bone | *kondaC |
| brain | *muk |
| breast | *amu |
| buttocks | *simbi + modifier |
| cheek | *mVkVm |
| claw, hand | *sikal or *sakil |
| ear | *kandk |
| excrement 1 | |
| excrement 2 | *ata |
| eye 1 | *iti-maŋgV |
| eye 2 | *ŋgmu |
| eye 3 | *nVpV |
| fingernail | *tC |
| foot, lower leg | *knd |
| forehead, head | *mVtVna |
| guts, intestines, bowels | *sim, *simbi |
| hair 1 | *umu |
| hair 2, leaf | *iti |
| head 1 | *kVutu |
| head 2 | *mVtVna |
| heart 1 | *mundu-maŋgV |
| heart 2 | *simu |
| heart 3 | *kamu |
| knee | *atuk |
| leg 1 | *knd |
| leg 2, calf | *kitu |
| liver | *pVn |
| milk, sap | *muk |
| mouth, teeth | *maŋgat |
| navel | *simu + modifier |
| neck 1 | *kak |
| neck 2, nape, side of | *kuma |
| nose | *mundu |
| penis | *mo |
| saliva | *siat |
| shoulder | *kinV |
| skin | *aapu |
| testicles | *walaka |
| tongue 1 | *mbilaŋ |
| tongue 2 | *mee |
| tooth 1 | |
| tooth 2 | *titi |
| urine | *si, *siti, *pisi |
| - | |
| kin terms | - |
| brother, older | *amba |
| father | *apa, *mbapa |
| grandparent | *apus |
| husband, man | *ambi |
| mother, free form | *am |
| mother, bound form | *na- |
| sibling, older | *nan |
| sibling, older same sex | *amba |
| sister | *aya |
| - | |
| age-gender and other social categories | - |
| baby | *ŋaŋa |
| boy | *nV |
| man, husband | *ambi |
| orphan, widow & child | *mbeŋga-masi |
| woman, female | *panV |
| - | |
| birds, bird parts | - |
| bird 1 | *ni |
| bird 2 | *yaka |
| cassowary | *kua |
| egg 1 | *munka |
| egg 2, fruit, seed | *maŋgV |
| tail | *au |
| wing | *mbutu |
| - | |
| insects | - |
| butterfly | *apata |
| fly | *ŋgambu |
| louse | *niman, *iman |
| mosquito | *kasin |
| - | |
| plants, plant parts | - |
| bark | *kaap |
| casuarina | *kalpV |
| fruit, seed | *maŋgV |
| leaf 1, hair | *iti |
| leaf 2 | *sasak |
| root | *kindil |
| sap, milk | *muk |
| taro | *mV |
| tree, wood | *inda |
| - | |
| inanimate world | - |
| ashes 1 | *sumbu |
| ashes 2 | *kambu-sumbu |
| ashes 3 | *laa |
| cloud 1, sky | *samb |
| cloud 2 | *kautu |
| fire 1 | *kndp |
| fire 2 | *inda |
| fire 3 | *kambu |
| flame | *mbalaŋ |
| ground 1 | *man |
| ground 2 | *maka |
| lightning, light | *elak |
| moon 1 | *takVn |
| moon 2 | *kalm |
| morning | *ktuma + X |
| night | *ktuma |
| sand | *saasiŋ |
| sky 1, cloud | *samb |
| thunder, sky 2 | *kumut, *tumuk |
| smoke 1 | *kambu |
| smoke 2 | *kambu-laa |
| stone 1 | *kambna |
| stone 2 | *muna |
| sun 1 | *kamali |
| sun 2 | *ketane |
| water 1 | *ok |
| water 2 | *nok |
| wind 1 | *kumbutu |
| wind 2, breeze | *pinVm |
| - | |
| artefacts | - |
| axe | *tu |
| fence | *wati |
| netbag 1 | *kun |
| netbag 2 | *at |
| string, rope | *asi |
| - | |
| intangible cultural concepts | - |
| instructions, language, word, speech | *mana |
| mind, thought | *nman |
| name 1 | *imbi |
| name 2, who | *wani |
| shadow, spirit | *knan |
| song, type of | *saŋ |
| witchcraft | *kum |
| - | |
| independent pronouns | - |
| 1 singular | *na |
| 2 singular | *ŋga |
| 3 singular | *ya |
| 3 singular | *wa |
| 1 plural | *ni, *nu |
| 1 plural | *ni |
| 2 plural | *ŋgi, *ki |
| 1 dual | *niLi, *nuLi |
| 2 dual | *ŋgiLi, *kiLi |
| 3 dual | *iLi |
| - | |
| verbal suffixes marking person-number of subject | - |
| 1 singular | *-Vn |
| 2 singular | *-an |
| 1 dual | *-uL |
| 2/3 dual | *-iL |
| 1 plural | *-un |
| 1 singular different subject | *-pa |
| - | |
| verbs | - |
| be | *mVna- |
| bite | *s- |
| blow | *pu + verb |
| break | *pa- |
| burn | *nd- |
| burn, light a fire | *ki- |
| carry | *kak- |
| come | *me- |
| cook | *andu- |
| cut, chop | *tVk- |
| die | *kumV- |
| do, make | *ti- |
| dream | *kina- |
| eat, drink | *na- |
| fly, flutter | *putu- |
| give | *mV- |
| go 1 | *pu- |
| go 2 | *yata- |
| hit | *tu- |
| know, hear, see | *nVŋg- |
| laugh | *ŋgiti |
| live, be, sit | see 'be' |
| put | *aV- |
| say, speak | *nde- |
| see, know, perceive | *nVŋg- |
| shoot | *tVmV- |
| sleep 1, lie down | *kin |
| sleep 2 | *pto- |
| speak, talk | *nde- |
| spit | *kasipa- |
| stand | *tk- |
| swell | *su + verb |
| take | *a- |
| tie | *ndiŋga-, *ndaŋgi |
| turn | *mbuli + verb |
| urinate | *X + *si- |
| vomit | *mVŋV ti- |
| - | |
| adjectives | - |
| blue | *muk |
| cold | *kukam |
| dry | *ŋgatata |
| full | *tk ti- |
| heavy | *kenda |
| long | *ktp |
| new | *kVtak |
| short | *tumba |
| straight | *tutuku |
| - | |
| conjunctions | - |
| and | *ito |
| - | |
| negatives | - |
| not | *ma- |
| - | |
| numerals | - |
| two | *ta |